42 Effects You Should Know: Part 1
Even if you consider yourself as wise as the Seven Sages of Greece, there’s always something new to learn.
We hope this collection of interesting ‘effects’ does just that.
Think of them as random bits of knowledge that could become useful or finally give you the name for something you've repeatedly observed.
1. The Zeigarnik Effect
People remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks.
The ‘Zeigarnik effect’ is named after the Lithuanian-Soviet psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik who observed that the brain remembers uncompleted or interrupted tasks but quickly forgets those it has completed.
It explains why you find it hard to stop thinking about everything you haven’t done (and so easy to forget what you’ve already accomplished).
2. The Fresh Start Effect
We are more motivated to change on dates that imply a new beginning.
Is there an optimum time to start a new habit?
It’s a question worth asking, given that behaviour change is so hard. The good news is there is evidence that choosing a date to start something new makes a difference.
Research by Hengchen Dai et al. shows that we are more motivated to change on dates that imply a new beginning.
For example, we are much more likely to attempt behaviour change if it’s the first month of the year or the first day of the month. Behavioural scientists refer to this phenomenon as the ‘fresh start effect’.
3. The Cocktail Party Effect
The brain pays attention to what it thinks is important and filters out the rest.
If you’ve been at a busy social event and suddenly hear someone saying your name amongst all the indecipherable background noise, you’ve experienced the ‘cocktail party effect’.
This phenomenon occurs because we are cognitive misers. To process all of the information we receive at a conscious level would require too much energy, so the brain only pays attention to certain important stimuli, like your name.
Everything else it simply filters out.
4. The Generation Effect
We remember things better if we’ve had a hand in creating them.
For an idea to really stick, the audience needs to participate in its creation.
This phenomenon explains why, for example, students remember course material better when they write it in their own notes rather than learning it by rote.
In advertising, the ‘generation effect’ is called ‘co-creation’.
5. The Picture Superiority Effect
In a war of images versus words, images will always win.
You’ve undoubtedly heard the phrase ‘A picture tells a thousand words.’
Why is this the case?
The answer is to do with the fact that a large portion of the human brain is dedicated to visual processing.
Because an image is faster to process than a set of words, the brain gives images priority.
6. The Pratfall Effect
People or products who exhibit flaws become more appealing.
In social psychology, the ‘pratfall effect’ is a phenomenon whereby people or products that exhibit flaws become more appealing.
Brands sometimes use this to their advantage.
The unusual-tasting sandwich spread Marmite’s long-running ad campaign ‘You either love it or you hate it’ in the UK is a good example.
7. The Dilution Effect
An abundance of information dilutes the core message.
More information is not always better.
A paper by Zukier (1982) demonstrated that multiple claims in adverts might reduce their effectiveness. In other words, if you want people to remember your core message, make sure it’s the focus of your communication.
8. The False Consensus Effect
We believe others agree with us more than they do.
Ross et al. (1977) coined the term the ‘false consensus’ effect to describe the tendency to “see one’s own behavioral choices and judgments as relatively common and appropriate to existing circumstances while viewing alternative responses as uncommon, deviant, or inappropriate”.
Put another way; we overestimate the degree to which others agree with our views.
9. The Backfire Effect
The more you try to disprove something, the more likely people will believe it.
Counterintuitively, our beliefs get stronger in the face of disconfirming evidence.
You often see this occurring within cults. When the leader's prophecy doesn’t come to pass, cult members double down on their belief rather than question it.
Why does this happen?
The answer is that the ego likes to maintain a consistent image of itself. This makes us quick to dismiss information that challenges a deeply held belief.
10. The Goldilocks Effect
If faced with three options, we tend to pick the middle one.
Humans have a natural tendency to go for the middle option, known as ‘extremeness aversion’ or the ‘Goldilocks effect’.
This is why most people pick the medium when presented with the option of small, medium or large drink size.
11. The Name-letter Effect
A person’s name can influence their choices.
The ‘name-letter effect’ is the tendency of people to prefer the letters in their name over other letters in the alphabet. There is some evidence that this has an impact on their wider decision-making.
For example, one study of charity donations following Hurricane Katrina found a disproportionate number of people donating whose names started with a ‘K’.
Similarly, nominative determinism is the hypothesis that people tend to gravitate towards areas of work that fit their names.
E.g. A policeman named Rob Banks, a racing driver called Scott Speed and the Archbishop of Manila with the name Cardinal Sin.
12. The Mere Exposure Effect
We prefer things we’re familiar with.
The ‘mere exposure effect’, sometimes referred to as the ‘familiarity principle’, is the tendency to develop a preference for something solely due to it being familiar, e.g. songs, art, faces, etc.
Advertising benefits from this phenomenon. Exposing someone to your brand increases the likelihood they will choose it over a less well-known one.
13. The Diderot Effect
How buying one thing fuels the purchase of other things.
Named after the 17th-century artist and writer Denis Diderot.
Diderot struggled financially for most of his career until Catherine the Great became his patron, purchased his library and paid him a healthy salary. With his newfound wealth, he decided to treat himself to a small upgrade: a new robe.
But this had a disastrous effect.
He began to compare his fancy new threads with the rundown state of the rest of his possessions.
This prompted him to replace the other items he owned one by one, with each purchase fuelling the next one.
14. The Peltzman Effect
The introduction of safety measures increases risk-taking.
The ‘Peltzman effect’ is a theory that states that people are more likely to engage in risky behaviour when security measures have been mandated.
This phenomenon occurs because people's perception of risk changes, so they take greater risks.
15. The Einstellung Effect
An idea you already have in mind prevents a better solution from being found.
There are downsides to being an expert. One of these is that domain-specific knowledge can sometimes hinder your problem-solving ability.
This is because you will have preconceived notions about solving a particular problem which means you dismiss or overlook alternative theories.
‘Einstellung’ is a German word meaning ‘setting’ or ‘installation’. It refers to the ‘fixed’ mindset problem solvers have when applying previous knowledge to new problems.
16. The Cheerleader Effect
We think individuals are more attractive when they are in a group.
A scientific paper published in 2003 demonstrated that both men and women were rated more attractive when presented as part of a group photo than a solo photo.
This cognitive bias known as the ‘cheerleader effect’ occurs because the brain doesn’t process every individual detail but instead categorises information into groups.
17. The Messenger Effect
The messenger is the message.
The ‘messenger effect’ is the idea that the person making the statement is as important as what is being said. This explains why celebrity endorsements are so effective.
When planning any advertising activity, consider carefully who you choose to give your message.
18. The Spotlight Effect
We overestimate how much attention other people pay to our appearance or actions.
As humans, we think other people are observing us more than they really are. The reality is they’re far too busy worrying about their own problems to pay attention to us.
In other words, we perceive a ‘spotlight’ on us when none exists.
19. The Sailing Ship Effect
New technology often forces improvements in existing technology.
When a new technology is introduced, the assumption is that it will render the incumbent technology obsolete overnight.
In fact, introducing new technology to a market often accelerates the innovation of existing technology.
This phenomenon is named in reference to the significant advances in sailing ship design in the latter half of the 1800s in response to the introduction of steamships.
20. The Goal-Gradient Effect
The closer someone is to achieving a goal, the more they strive to complete it.
Businesses often use the ‘goal gradient effect’ to incentivise their customers.
For example, it’s common for coffee shops to pre-stamp the first one or two circles on a loyalty card to give new customers the illusion they are closer to completing the goal of acquiring a free coffee.
21. The Bandwagon Effect
Believing an argument is valid because a majority of people accept it.
In the early days of political campaigning, it was customary for candidates to ride on a bandwagon through each town.
People who wanted to show their support for a candidate would, literally, “jump on the bandwagon” and ride with them in solidarity.
This leads to people voting for a President simply because they are popular instead of being the best candidate or assuming that someone is a good person just because everyone else thinks that way.
If you enjoyed this list, you would undoubtedly love our courses that cover a wide range of interesting topics. From creativity and wellbeing to behavioural science and marketing, there’s something for everyone at 42courses.com.
